In this contemporary age of scientific and technological advancement, the need to keep pace with the global trend of development demands that people should be scientifically literate. Scientific literacy according to Nwagbo (2006) is the use of scientific knowledge acquired by an individual to solve personal and civic problems confronting him in the society. Without scientific literacy among a sizable proportion of the society, progress in achieving modernization will be difficult. Scientific literacy has such a dominant effect on people’s lives that it is now considered essential for every citizen to be scientifically literate. While it is not expected that all citizens will become scientists, scientific literacy will help the leaders and policy makers to understand and propose suitable solutions to environmental problems, health problems, and other societal problems. It will also help the populace to understand and support policy decisions.
Basic science and technology is designed for pupils at the lower basic and middle basic levels of primary education. The teaching of this subject therefore requires specialist science teachers capable of originating and maintaining suitable learning conditions in and outside the classroom. The federal government, being fully aware of the importance of specialist teachers at this level, listed the provision of specialist teachers in some subjects including science and mathematics as one of the educational services that will be provided at the primary education level. Some efforts were made in this direction but much still needs to be accomplished. Most of the teachers handling Basic Science at the primary school level are Arts-oriented as they were not specially trained to teach science subjects at the primary school level. In addition, each teacher is in charge of one class and teaches all the subjects offered by that class irrespective of his/her area of specialization. Ali (2009) in Osuafor and Okigbo (2010) blamed this practice for being responsible for poor pupils’ achievement at the primary education level. It could also be responsible for the Nigerian primary science pupils’ poor performance at international competitions as reported by Okebukola (1997).
In a study by Osuafor and Okigbo (2010) on the analysis of the performance of pupils taught primary science and mathematics by specialist and non-specialist teachers, it was revealed that pupils taught primary science and mathematics by science and mathematics specialists performed significantly higher in their achievement test than those taught by non-specialist teachers. The non-science specialist teachers presumably find it difficult to adequately impart scientific knowledge to their students. Unfortunately this deficiency is carried forward and is reflected in the performance of the science students at the Junior School Certificate Examinations (JSCE) which is the first end-of course examination taken at the end of the 9-year Basic Education program.
2.6 Factors that Encourage or Inhibit Parents' Involvement in Children Education
It is well-evidenced that school's invitation and welcoming environment is very important to encourage parents' participation. The Center on Families, Communities, Schools, and Children's Learning (1994) reports that parents are more likely to participate in schools if they receive information from teachers about classroom activities, the progress of their children, and how to work with their children at home. A variety of factors shape parent involvement in school which includes "request for participation from school" (Shiffman, 2011, p.162) as well as the connection between parents' education and children learning is well-documented. Parents reported the importance of a welcoming and inviting school as demonstrated through positive parent-to teacher relationships and teacher-to-child relationships and an overall attitude of professionalism to support parent involvement at school (Charletta, 2011). Unfortunately, in Afghanistan, parents are not contacted by school, unless their children have problems and an invitation from teachers implies as if your child has broken any rule or is lagging behind in studies. In some countries, the school may designate a parent liaison or home-school coordinator to coordinate parent-teacher meetings and develop parent-involvement programs (Ballen & Moles, 1994).
According to Michigan Department of Education (2002) family participation was found to be twice predictive of students' academic success as compared to family socio-economic class. In Afghanistan like many other contexts, parents are not a homogeneous group. However, there is an expectation that parents’ involvement should fit particular criteria which does not take into consideration the different types of engagement parents have with their children's learning and educational experience (Crozier & Davies, 2007). Parental involvement is often seen as helping child read or do homework which is the kind of support that non-literate parents cannot do. Little value is attached to other forms of involvement such as encouraging the child to study, preparing children for school, asking questions about the daily school experience and communicating the value of education to children. Dissonance can occur between the needs, values and traditions of the home and those of the school (ibid).
There are ways to overcome impediments to parents' involvement. Organizing school so that at least one person knows each child well, keeping a "parent room" in the building, and encouraging parent-to-parent communication and events are key parts of an effective parent involvement programs (Berla, Henderson & Kerewsky, 1989). In Afghanistan children often belong to closely knit neighborhoods where their families know each other well and have social relationships. The existing social capital can be mobilized to encourage parent to parent support in getting out of school children into school and reducing drop-out rate. What hinders parents from engaging with schools and why schools are hard to reach for parents are also an important aspect to explore. In Afghanistan where most of the parents particularly women do not have any experience of education, schools seem intimidating and inaccessible to parents which necessitate a proactive role on the part of school to invite parents. Uneducated and semi-literate parents may feel inadequate in their capacity to help their children. Men may get discouraged from involvement in children's literacy because of the perceived gender roles and feelings of inadequacy in their own literacy (Fletcher & Daly, 2002).
